Burmese Temple Architecture

'A light rain was falling and the sky was dark with heavy clouds when I reached Pagan. In the distance I saw the pagodas for which it is renowned. They loomed, huge, remote and mysterious, out of the mist of the early morning like the vague recollections of a fantastic dream.'

W. Somerset Maugham, The Gentleman in the Parlour (1930).

Burma possesses a singularly wide range of Buddhist architectural styles. One reason for this is the essentially eclectic nature of the Burmese Theravada tradition, adopting that which pleases or appeals and rejecting that which does not. Although the Bamar people are today the predominant ethnic group in the country, dominating the great, temple-rich cities of the central plains, in times past they have borrowed seriatim from peoples they have eclipsed, absorbed or otherwise come to dominate, such as the Mon and the Rakhaing. Burma's religious and cultural traditions have also been influenced by conquests abroad, most notably in the former Kingdom of Lan Na (now north Thailand) and in Siam. From the extinction of the Mon Kingdom of Thaton in the 10th century, through the long occupation of Lan Na (1564-1774), to the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767, it was common practice for skilled artisans and religious scholars to be taken back to enrich and embellish the Burmese court of the time.

David Henley / CPA

At the Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon.

Another cogent explanation for the wide diversity of temple styles in Burma was the oft-repeated habit of new rulers to move the royal court to a new palace and capital upon assuming power. Under these circumstances it was necessary to construct new temples and religious edifices to compliment and serve the new palace and royal court. Yet the tradition of constructing paya of all kinds on top of almost every raised piece of ground has not been limited to royalty and nobility alone. The sheer number of Buddhist structures scattered throughout Burma is apt testimony to the seemingly endless desire of all Burmese to build temples, shrines and above all stupas or zedi. In spiritual terms, this has everything to do with merit-making, the possibility of an improved rebirth and, indeed, compensation for transgressions committed in the present life. More cynically, the building of paya of any sort also brings the sponsor respect and status in the current life, and leaves a fitting memorial for the family to be proud of after the builder has passed on.

The most common paya seen throughout Burma is the zedi, more commonly known in Western literature as the stupa. There are numerous variations in zedi style, but the basic concept and structure remains the same. The stupa in its present form evolved more than 2,500 years ago in India following the death of Gautama Buddha, when relics of the 'Enlightened One' were taken by his disciples and enshrined within solid structures, usually of brick and stucco. In Southeast Asia, and especially in Burma, some stupas subsequently evolved to house Buddha images, and far from being solid structures, could be entered by devotees. Generally speaking, most Burmese zedi consist of square or octagonal terraces supporting a bell-shaped dome which is often likened to a thabeiq or monk's bowl, or sometimes to an anda or temple bell. Above the dome the zedi narrows to a tall spire supported by concentric rings shaped like lotus petals and banana buds. At the top of the spire rests the hti or decorated umbrellas (usually gilded and bejewelled) near the top of which is attached a metal, flag-like vane. The topmost part of the hti is surmounted by an orb, symbolising enlightenment, release from the cycle of rebirth and the attainment of Nirvana.

David Henley / CPA

Sule Pagoda, Yangon.

Across Burma zedi may be found almost everywhere, marking passes, raised mounds and hill tops, and sacred places of all kinds. Commonly, however, they form part of an extended paya complex comprising a kyaung or pongyikyaun - that is, a Buddhist monastery. Typically, a Burmese monastery forms the spiritual centre of the village, quarter or district in which it may stand, and traditionally it functions as a place of worship for monks and lay people alike, as well as a school, a social centre and even a hospital. Temples tend to be built around zedi, but include other buildings such as a thein or consecrated assembly hall for the ordination of novices, a viharn where the faithful assemble to pray and listen to sermons, living quarters for resident and itinerant monks, a library and a bell tower or gong. The central zedi is often surrounded by several smaller shrines or gyo-daing which may house Buddha images, or equally may be dedicated to the local tutelary spirit or bo bo gyi. Sometimes there is also a zayat or rest hall where lay people may rest by day or sleep overnight during pilgrimages and festivals. Another common feature of Burmese temples is the pahto, a building which sometimes substitutes for but more usually compliments a zedi. Pahto tend to be square or oblong buildings, often massively built with low passageways and small windows, sometimes with several floors and passages leading to outer terraces. The Pahto represents a symbolic Mount Meru, the home of the gods, which worshippers can climb and venerate.

David Henley / CPA

The Ananda Temple, Pagan.

There are certain constants in Burmese temple architecture which may well have characterised temples in ancient times. It is impossible to be certain, however, because temple buildings are by their very nature more fragile, and therefore more constantly in need of repair and even renewal, than the more solidly built zedi. Thus monastery buildings are usually crowned by elaborate multi-tiered roofs or pyat-that, whilst temple compounds are generally surrounded by a wall distinguishing the sacred from the mundane and marking the limits of everyday life.

The oldest surviving religious buildings in Burma, or at least the remains thereof, date from the pre-Bamar Pyu Kingdoms of Beikthano, Thayekhittaya and Halin (approximately 3^rd to the 10^th century). Brick-built structures at Beikthano to the southeast of Bagan that have been dated to the 1st to the 5^th century are clearly based on Indian prototypes. The Beikthano Monastery complex is said by experts to be similar to that of Nagarajunakonda in South India and is believed to date from the 2nd century. Later structures at Thayekhittaya, also known as Sri Ksetra, near Pyay, have been dated to the 5^th to the 9^th century and include three bulbous stupas evincing clear Indian influence. Also attributed to the Pyu, stupa-like brick structures at Halin, a short distance southeast of Shwebo, are thought to date from the 9^th to the 11^th century. Skeletons excavated here are aligned to the southeast, commonly considered the direction of the locality spirit or ein-saung nat, so the religious beliefs of these early Burmese were probably as much animistic and Buddhist, and as eclectic as that of many of their descendants.

Like the Pyu, the Mon were amongst the earliest known inhabitants of the region comprising modern Burma, being well established in and around Mon State and the Ayeyarawady Delta by the 6^th to 9^th century. The Mon were the first indigenous people on the east side of the Bay of Bengal to embrace Buddhism. The early Mon kingdom centred on the town of Thaton, which according to legend was visited by Buddhist missionaries of the Indian Emperor Asoka as early as 300 BC. Today little of ancient Thaton remains apart from sections of ruined city wall. Even less remains at another former Mon capital, Bilin, just south of the famous balancing boulder zedi of Kyaikto. Over the past millennium the Mon have been substantially absorbed by the dominant Bamar, leaving little evidence of distinct Mon architectural styles. It seems clear, however, that Mon traditions were not destroyed, but rather embraced with enthusiasm by Anawrahta when he conquered Thaton in 1057. The victorious Bamar monarch took back to his capital at Bagan not just the Mon king, but most of his court including architects, painters and all kinds of artisans. The style of temple which subsequently emerged at Bagan was therefore as much Mon as Bamar, and may reasonably be described as the first authentically 'Burmese' tradition.

Had Bagan been known to classical European antiquity, it would doubtless have been famous as one of the Wonders of the World. In its prime the city would have looked very different to its aspect today - it would have bustled with tens of thousands of people, and the greater part of the building would have been made of wood and bamboo. Such temporary structures have long since disappeared, leaving the immensity of Bagan's Buddhist architectural heritage. The plain is studded with a plethora of temples and stupas, made mainly of brick and decorated with stucco on the outside, mural paintings within. Archaeologists distinguish between the earlier, one-storey temples dating from the 10^th to 12^th century, which are sometimes ascribed to the Mon craftsmen of King Anawrahta. Many have Mon inscriptions, and they are generally distinguished by being smaller, darker and somewhat more numinous than the larger, later temples.

Clear evidence exists that the building of paya was considered merit-making during the Bagan era just as now, nor were such activities limited only to the great and the powerful. Bricks were donated by kilns in surrounding villages, and sometimes these were stamped with a village name. When finished, temples at pagan were decorated on the inside with elaborate murals generally featuring Jataka Buddha life-cycle stories, while the exterior was decorated with glazed ceramic tiles and / or stucco.

Isolated from the rest of Burma by the coastal Rakhaing Yoma, and enjoying good littoral communications with neighbouring Bengal, Rakhaing - formerly known as Arakan as well as by the panegyric 'Land of the Great Image' in honour of the Mahamuni Buddha - was an independent kingdom until its conquest by Burma's King Bodawpaya during the 18^th century. For this reason the architecture of Rakhaing is distinct from the rest of Burma. Art historians recognise two distinct features of Rakhaing temple architecture as being the combined use of brick and stone, and the enclosure of temples by massive walls, giving a fortress-like appearance. The inspiration for Rakhaing temples such as those found at Mrauk-U is traced to distant Bihar, across the Bay of Bengal, rather than to the nearby but inaccessible Burmese heartlands. In fact it appears that Rakhaing temples often functioned as places of safe refuge during war, but within the massive walls the narrow corridors and passages were often elaborately decorated with both painted murals and carvings.

Ava - now officially named Inwa - functioned as the centre of a Shan Kingdom in the 14^th to 16^th century before becoming capital of Burma during the 17^th and 18^th century. As with Bagan, many buildings both religious and secular were made of wood, but unlike Bagan in Ava a few wooden paya have survived, most notably the Bagaya kyaung, though in its present form this dates from the early 20^th century. During its primacy the religious architecture of Ava was distinguished by the elaborate use of stucco decoration, the refined elegance of its stupas - by now less bulbous and more tapering - as well as very elaborate pyat-that or multi-roofed pavilions.

The 'City of Immortality' was founded by King Bodawpaya in 1783 and remained capital of Burma until 1857, with a hiatus between 1823 and 1841 when Ava was briefly re-established. The religious architecture of Amarapura is essentially a continuation of the Avan tradition. Marble was increasingly used in temple construction, and the period is also marked by the extravagant use of stucco in paya decoration, notably at the elaborate Nagayon shrine. Chinese and European architectural influences became apparent perhaps for the first time. Murals surviving on the walls of the Kyauktawgyi Pagoda (1847) are particularly interesting, providing vivid examples of mid-19^th century wooden monastic architecture.

Although never a Burmese royal capital, Mingun on the west bank of the Ayeyarawady River about 11km (7 miles) upstream from Mandalay was singled out by King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) as the site of the massive Mingun Paya. Work was started in 1816, but Bodawpaya died before the project could be completed. As a consequence work stopped when the zedi was a 'mere' 50 metres (162ft) high, just one-third of the height intended.

The last royal capital of Burma, Mandalay was established by King Mindon in 1857. The architectural style adopted by Mindon was in direct continuation with the Ava-Amarapura tradition, but if anything still more elaborate than the latter. Richly ornamented in stucco and marble, temples also benefited from a wealth of elaborate and highly-skilled wood carving, much of which has survived to the present day.

Burmese Buddhist Terminology

Many Burmese Buddhist terms, like those of nearby Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Sri Lanka, are derived from the South Asian Buddhist tradition through Pali and or Sanskrit. Common Burmese religious usage includes the following terms:

Text copyright © Andrew Forbes / CPA 2005.

An extended version of this article appears in APA Insight Guide Burma

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